Why Helical Piers Address Deep Soil Shifts

see § Design for more types):

• Beam and block, also referred to as rib and block, is mostly used in residential and industrial applications. This slab type is made up of pre-stressed beams and hollow blocks and are temporarily propped until set, typically after 21 days.^[4]
• A hollow core slab which is precast and installed on site with a crane
• In high rise buildings and skyscrapers, thinner, pre-cast concrete slabs are slung between the steel frames to form the floors and ceilings on each level. Cast in-situ slabs are used in high rise buildings and large shopping complexes as well as houses. These in-situ slabs are cast on site using shutters and reinforced steel.

On technical drawings, reinforced concrete slabs are often abbreviated to "r.c.c. slab" or simply "r.c.". Calculations and drawings are often done by structural engineers in CAD software.

Energy efficiency has become a primary concern for the construction of new buildings, and the prevalence of concrete slabs calls for careful consideration of its thermal properties in order to minimise wasted energy.^[5] Concrete has similar thermal properties to masonry products, in that it has a relatively high thermal mass and is a good conductor of heat.

In some special cases, the thermal properties of concrete have been employed, for example as a heatsink in nuclear power plants or a thermal buffer in industrial freezers.^[6]

Thermal conductivity of a concrete slab indicates the rate of heat transfer through the solid mass by conduction, usually in regard to heat transfer to or from the ground. The coefficient of thermal conductivity, k, is proportional to density of the concrete, among other factors.^[5] The primary influences on conductivity are moisture content, type of aggregate, type of cement, constituent proportions, and temperature. These various factors complicate the theoretical evaluation of a k-value, since each component has a different conductivity when isolated, and the position and proportion of each components affects the overall conductivity. To simplify this, particles of aggregate may be considered to be suspended in the homogeneous cement. Campbell-Allen and Thorne (1963) derived a formula for the theoretical thermal conductivity of concrete.^[6] In practice this formula is rarely applied, but remains relevant for theoretical use. Subsequently, Valore (1980) developed another formula in terms of overall density.^[7] However, this study concerned hollow concrete blocks and its results are unverified for concrete slabs.

The actual value of k varies significantly in practice, and is usually between 0.8 and 2.0 W m⁻¹ K⁻¹.^[8] This is relatively high when compared to other materials, for example the conductivity of wood may be as low as 0.04 W m⁻¹ K⁻¹. One way of mitigating the effects of thermal conduction is to introduce insulation (

see § Insulation).

The second consideration is the high thermal mass of concrete slabs, which applies similarly to walls and floors, or wherever concrete is used within the thermal envelope. Concrete has a relatively high thermal mass, meaning that it takes a long time to respond to changes in ambient temperature.^[9] This is a disadvantage when rooms are heated intermittently and require a quick response, as it takes longer to warm the entire building, including the slab. However, the high thermal mass is an advantage in climates with large daily temperature swings, where the slab acts as a regulator, keeping the building cool by day and warm by night.

Typically concrete slabs perform better than implied by their R-value.^[5] The R-value does not consider thermal mass, since it is tested under constant temperature conditions. Thus, when a concrete slab is subjected to fluctuating temperatures, it will respond more slowly to these changes and in many cases increase the efficiency of a building.^[5] In reality, there are many factors which contribute to the effect of thermal mass, including the depth and composition of the slab, as well as other properties of the building such as orientation and windows.

Thermal mass is also related to thermal diffusivity, heat capacity and insulation. Concrete has low thermal diffusivity, high heat capacity, and its thermal mass is negatively affected by insulation (e.g. carpet).^[5]

Without insulation, concrete slabs cast directly on the ground can cause a significant amount of extraneous energy transfer by conduction, resulting in either lost heat or unwanted heat. In modern construction, concrete slabs are usually cast above a layer of insulation such as expanded polystyrene, and the slab may contain underfloor heating pipes.^[10] However, there are still uses for a slab that is not insulated, for example in outbuildings which are not heated or cooled to room temperature (

see § Mud slabs). In these cases, casting the slab directly onto a substrate of aggregate will maintain the slab near the temperature of the substrate throughout the year, and can prevent both freezing and overheating.

A common type of insulated slab is the beam and block system (mentioned above) which is modified by replacing concrete blocks with expanded polystyrene blocks.^[11] This not only allows for better insulation but decreases the weight of slab which has a positive effect on load bearing walls and foundations.

Ground-bearing slabs, also known as "on-ground" or "slab-on-grade", are commonly used for ground floors on domestic and some commercial applications. It is an economical and quick construction method for sites that have non-reactive soil and little slope.^[12]

For ground-bearing slabs, it is important to design the slab around the type of soil, since some soils such as clay are too dynamic to support a slab consistently across its entire area. This results in cracking and deformation, potentially leading to structural failure of any members attached to the floor, such as wall studs.^[12]

Levelling the site before pouring concrete is an important step, as sloping ground will cause the concrete to cure unevenly and will result in differential expansion. In some cases, a naturally sloping site may be levelled simply by removing soil from the uphill site. If a site has a more significant grade, it may be a candidate for the "cut and fill" method, where soil from the higher ground is removed, and the lower ground is built up with fill.^[13]

In addition to filling the downhill side, this area of the slab may be supported on concrete piers which extend into the ground. In this case, the fill material is less important structurally as the dead weight of the slab is supported by the piers. However, the fill material is still necessary to support the curing concrete and its reinforcement.

There are two common methods of filling - controlled fill and rolled fill.^[13]

• Controlled fill: Fill material is compacted in several layers by a vibrating plate or roller. Sand fills areas up to around 800 mm deep, and clay may be used to fill areas up to 400 mm deep. However, clay is much more reactive than sand, so it should be used sparingly and carefully. Clay must be moist during compaction to homogenise it.^[13]
• Rolled fill: Fill is repeatedly compacted by an excavator, but this method of compaction is less effective than a vibrator or roller. Thus, the regulations on maximum depth are typically stricter.

Proper curing of ground-bearing concrete is necessary to obtain adequate strength. Since these slabs are inevitably poured on-site (rather than precast as some suspended slabs are), it can be difficult to control conditions to optimize the curing process. This is usually aided by a membrane, either plastic (temporary) or a liquid compound (permanent).^[14]

Ground-bearing slabs are usually supplemented with some form of reinforcement, often steel rebar. However, in some cases such as concrete roads, it is acceptable to use an unreinforced slab if it is adequately engineered (

see below).

For a suspended slab, there are a number of designs to improve the strength-to-weight ratio. In all cases the top surface remains flat, and the underside is modulated:

• A corrugated slab is designed when the concrete is poured into a corrugated steel tray, more commonly called decking. This steel tray improves strength of the slab, and prevents the slab from bending under its own weight. The corrugations run in one direction only.
• A ribbed slab gives considerably more strength in one direction. This is achieved with concrete beams bearing load between piers or columns, and thinner, integral ribs in the perpendicular direction. An analogy in carpentry would be a subfloor of bearers and joists. Ribbed slabs have higher load ratings than corrugated or flat slabs, but are inferior to waffle slabs.^[15]
• A waffle slab gives added strength in both directions using a matrix of recessed segments beneath the slab.^[16] This is the same principle used in the ground-bearing version, the waffle slab foundation. Waffle slabs are usually deeper than ribbed slabs of equivalent strength, and are heavier hence require stronger foundations. However, they provide increased mechanical strength in two dimensions, a characteristic important for vibration resistance and soil movement.^[17]

Unreinforced or "plain"^[18] slabs are becoming rare and have limited practical applications, with one exception being the mud slab (

see below). They were once common in the US, but the economic value of reinforced ground-bearing slabs has become more appealing for many engineers.^[10] Without reinforcement, the entire load on these slabs is supported by the strength of the concrete, which becomes a vital factor. As a result, any stress induced by a load, static or dynamic, must be within the limit of the concrete's flexural strength to prevent cracking.^[19] Since unreinforced concrete is relatively very weak in tension, it is important to consider the effects of tensile stress caused by reactive soil, wind uplift, thermal expansion, and cracking.^[20] One of the most common applications for unreinforced slabs is in concrete roads.

Mud slabs, also known as rat slabs, are thinner than the more common suspended or ground-bearing slabs (usually 50 to 150 mm), and usually contain no reinforcement.^[21] This makes them economical and easy to install for temporary or low-usage purposes such as subfloors, crawlspaces, pathways, paving, and levelling surfaces.^[22] In general, they may be used for any application which requires a flat, clean surface. This includes use as a base or "sub-slab" for a larger structural slab. On uneven or steep surfaces, this preparatory measure is necessary to provide a flat surface on which to install rebar and waterproofing membranes.^[10] In this application, a mud slab also prevents the plastic bar chairs from sinking into soft topsoil which can cause spalling due to incomplete coverage of the steel. Sometimes a mud slab may be a substitute for coarse aggregate. Mud slabs typically have a moderately rough surface, finished with a float.^[10]

A one-way slab has moment-resisting reinforcement only in its short axis, and is used when the moment in the long axis is negligible.^[23] Such designs include corrugated slabs and ribbed slabs. Non-reinforced slabs may also be considered one-way if they are supported on only two opposite sides (i.e. they are supported in one axis). A one-way reinforced slab may be stronger than a two-way non-reinforced slab, depending on the type of load.

The calculation of reinforcement requirements for a one-way slab can be extremely tedious and time-consuming, and one can never be completely certain of the best design.^{[citation needed]} Even minor changes to the project can necessitate recalculation of the reinforcement requirements. There are many factors to consider during the structural structure design of one-way slabs, including:

• Load calculations
• Bending moment calculation
• Acceptable depth of flexure and deflection
• Type and distribution of reinforcing steel

A two-way slab has moment resisting reinforcement in both directions.^[24] This may be implemented due to application requirements such as heavy loading, vibration resistance, clearance below the slab, or other factors. However, an important characteristic governing the requirement of a two-way slab is the ratio of the two horizontal lengths. If $\displaystyle l_x:l_y<2$ where $\displaystyle l_x$ is the short dimension and $\displaystyle l_y$ is the long dimension, then moment in both directions should be considered in design.^[25] In other words, if the axial ratio is greater than two, a two-way slab is required.

A non-reinforced slab is two-way if it is supported in both horizontal axes.

A concrete slab may be prefabricated (precast), or constructed on site.

Prefabricated concrete slabs are built in a factory and transported to the site, ready to be lowered into place between steel or concrete beams. They may be pre-stressed (in the factory), post-stressed (on site), or unstressed.^[10] It is vital that the wall supporting structure is built to the correct dimensions, or the slabs may not fit.

On-site concrete slabs are built on the building site using formwork, a type of boxing into which the wet concrete is poured. If the slab is to be reinforced, the rebars, or metal bars, are positioned within the formwork before the concrete is poured in.^[26] Plastic-tipped metal or plastic bar chairs, are used to hold the rebar away from the bottom and sides of the form-work, so that when the concrete sets it completely envelops the reinforcement. This concept is known as concrete cover. For a ground-bearing slab, the formwork may consist only of side walls pushed into the ground. For a suspended slab, the formwork is shaped like a tray, often supported by a temporary scaffold until the concrete sets.

The formwork is commonly built from wooden planks and boards, plastic, or steel. On commercial building sites, plastic and steel are gaining popularity as they save labour.^[27] On low-budget or small-scale jobs, for instance when laying a concrete garden path, wooden planks are very common. After the concrete has set the wood may be removed.

Formwork can also be permanent, and remain in situ post concrete pour. For large slabs or paths that are poured in sections, this permanent formwork can then also act as isolation joints within concrete slabs to reduce the potential for cracking due to concrete expansion or movement.

In some cases formwork is not necessary. For instance, a ground slab surrounded by dense soil, brick or block foundation walls, where the walls act as the sides of the tray and hardcore (rubble) acts as the base.

• Concrete Basics: A Guide to Concrete Practice
• Super Insulated Slab Foundations
• Design of Slabs on Ground Archived 2021-05-08 at the Wayback Machine

 

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The purpose of building codes is to provide minimum standards for safety, health, and general welfare including structural integrity, mechanical integrity (including sanitation, water supply, light, and ventilation), means of egress, fire prevention and control, and energy conservation.^[9][10] Building codes generally include:

• Standards for structure, placement, size, usage, wall assemblies, fenestration size/locations, egress rules, size/location of rooms, foundations, floor assemblies, roof structures/assemblies, energy efficiency, stairs and halls, mechanical, electrical, plumbing, site drainage & storage, appliance, lighting, fixtures standards, occupancy rules, and swimming pool regulations
• Rules regarding parking and traffic impact
• Fire code rules to minimize the risk of a fire and to ensure safe evacuation in the event of such an emergency^{[citation needed]}
• Requirements for earthquake (seismic code), hurricane, flood, and tsunami resistance, especially in disaster prone areas or for very large buildings where a failure would be catastrophic^{[citation needed]}
• Requirements for specific building uses (for example, storage of flammable substances, or housing a large number of people)
• Energy provisions and consumption
• Grandfather clauses: Unless the building is being renovated, the building code usually does not apply to existing buildings.
• Specifications on components
• Allowable installation methodologies
• Minimum and maximum room ceiling heights, exit sizes and location
• Qualification of individuals or corporations doing the work
• For high structures, anti-collision markers for the benefit of aircraft

Building codes are generally separate from zoning ordinances, but exterior restrictions (such as setbacks) may fall into either category.

Designers use building code standards out of substantial reference books during design. Building departments review plans submitted to them before construction, issue permits [or not] and inspectors verify compliance to these standards at the site during construction.

There are often additional codes or sections of the same building code that have more specific requirements that apply to dwellings or places of business and special construction objects such as canopies, signs, pedestrian walkways, parking lots, and radio and television antennas.

Building codes have been criticized for contributing to housing crisis and increasing the cost of new housing to some extent, including through conflicting code between different administrators.^[11] Proposed improvements include regular review and cost-benefit analysis of building codes,^[12] promotion of low-cost construction materials and building codes suitable to mass production,^[11] reducing bureaucracy, and promoting transparency.^[13]

Building codes have a long history. The earliest known written building code is included in the Code of Hammurabi,^[3] which dates from circa 1772 BC.

The book of Deuteronomy in the Hebrew Bible stipulated that parapets must be constructed on all houses to prevent people from falling off.^[14]

In the Chinese book of rites it mentions that ancestral temples and houses should be a certain standard length in ancient China they measured land in the chu or well field system so it was important to be precise though most of the actual lengths are lost or obscure.^[15][16]

In ancient Japan a certain official destroyed a courtiers house because the size was above his rank.^[17]

In Paris, under the reconstruction of much of the city under the Second Empire (1852–70), great blocks of apartments were erected^[18] and the height of buildings was limited by law to five or six stories at most.

After the Great Fire of London in 1666, which had been able to spread so rapidly through the densely built timber housing of the city, the Rebuilding of London Act 1666 was passed in the same year as the first significant building regulation.^[19] Drawn up by Sir Matthew Hale, the act regulated the rebuilding of the city, required housing to have some fire resistance capacity and authorised the City of London Corporation to reopen and widen roads.^[20] The Laws of the Indies were passed in the 1680s by the Spanish Crown to regulate the urban planning for colonies throughout Spain's worldwide imperial possessions.

The first systematic national building standard was established with the Metropolitan Buildings Act 1844. Among the provisions, builders were required to give the district surveyor two days' notice before building, regulations regarding the thickness of walls, height of rooms, the materials used in repairs, the dividing of existing buildings and the placing and design of chimneys, fireplaces and drains were to be enforced and streets had to be built to minimum requirements.^[21]

The Metropolitan Buildings Office was formed to regulate the construction and use of buildings throughout London. Surveyors were empowered to enforce building regulations, which sought to improve the standard of houses and business premises, and to regulate activities that might threaten public health. In 1855 the assets, powers and responsibilities of the office passed to the Metropolitan Board of Works.

The City of Baltimore passed its first building code in 1891.^[22] The Great Baltimore Fire occurred in February 1904. Subsequent changes were made that matched other cities.^[23] In 1904, a Handbook of the Baltimore City Building Laws was published. It served as the building code for four years. Very soon, a formal building code was drafted and eventually adopted in 1908.

The structural failure of the tank that caused the Great Molasses Flood of 1919 prompted the Boston Building Department to require engineering and architectural calculations be filed and signed. U.S. cities and states soon began requiring sign-off by registered professional engineers for the plans of major buildings.^[24]

More recently, the 2015 Berkeley balcony collapse has prompted updates to California's balcony building codes, set for 2025, which include stricter material requirements, enhanced load-bearing standards, and mandatory inspections which known as SB326 and SB721.^[25]These laws mandate regular inspections every six years for multifamily buildings. Property owners and HOAs are required to address any structural or waterproofing issues identified during inspections to ensure compliance and safety. Failure to comply can result in fines, increased liability, and legal consequences. The updates aim to prevent tragedies like the Berkeley collapse, which was caused by dry rot and structural failure, by ensuring the long-term safety and durability of elevated structures.^[26]

The current energy codes^{[clarification needed]} of the United States are adopted at the state and municipal levels and are based on the International Energy Conservation Code (IECC). Previously, they were based on the Model Energy Code (MEC). As of March 2017, the following residential codes have been partially or fully adopted by states:^[27]

• 2015 IECC or equivalent (California, Illinois, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Vermont, Washington)
• 2012 IECC or equivalent (Alabama, Connecticut, Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Iowa, Minnesota, Nevada, Rhode Island, Texas)
• 2009 IECC or equivalent (Arkansas, Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Mexico, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin)
• 2006 IECC or equivalent (Utah)
• 2006 IECC or no statewide code (Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, Kansas, Maine, Mississippi, Missouri, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming)

Australia uses the National Construction Code.

• Building officials
• Construction law
• Earthquake-resistant structures
• Energy Efficiency and Conservation Block Grants
• Outline of construction
• Seismic code
• Uniform Mechanical Code
• Variance (land use) – permission to vary zoning and sometimes building to code

• IAPMO Website
• IAPMO Codes Website